An Integrative Review of Depressive Disorders: From Origins and Aetiology to Clinical Features, Diagnosis, and Homoeopathic Management

Abstract

Depression (also known as depressive disorder) is a multifactorial psychiatric disorder and a leading cause of disability worldwide. The disorder affects over 280 million people globally, with lifetime prevalence rates between 10–20%. Women are nearly twice as likely to be affected as men, and the burden is disproportionately high in low- and middle-income countries. Historically described as melancholia, the concept has evolved from ancient medical traditions to modern diagnostic frameworks such as DSM-5 and ICD-11. Clinical forms include major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia), atypical depression, seasonal affective disorder, peripartum depression, and depression with psychotic or catatonic features. The development of depression involves genetic predisposition, neurotransmitter dysregulation, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis alterations, cognitive vulnerabilities, and psychosocial stressors, consistent with the biopsychosocial model. Core symptoms include persistent sadness, anhedonia, cognitive dysfunction, altered appetite or sleep, psychomotor changes, fatigue, and suicidal ideation. Diagnosis is as outlined by DSM-5/ICD-11. Screening tools such as PHQ-9 and HAM-D assist in evaluation and monitoring. Homoeopathy is used with remedies like Ignatia amara, Natrum muriaticum, Sepia officinalis, Aurum metallicum etc., prescribed according to individualized profiles.